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Bioplastics Facts and Figures

Biomass: Plant, animal or microbial matter.

Bio-based: Biomass derived.

Polymer: A substance with a structure formed of many small molecules bonded together.

Biopolymer: A polymer derived from renewable biomass.

Petropolymer: A polymer derived from fossil fuel resources (e.g. crude oil).

Plastic: A synthetic material that can be made from a wide range of polymers.

Bioplastic (or bio-based plastic): A plastic derived from renewable biomass.

Mixed Bioplastic: A plastic derived from both renewable and fossil fuel resources.

Biodegradation: Degradation brought about by the action of naturally occuring micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae.

Biodegradability: According to the European Norm EN13432, biodegradability is 'the breakdown of an organic chemical in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts of any other elements present (mineralisation) and new biomass'.   

Compostable: For a bioplastic to be termed 'compostable' it must be tested (e.g. to ISO 14855 test criteria for aerobic composting) and confirmed to biodegrade (under industrial composting conditions; 58 degrees Celsius) to carbon dioxide leaving only up to 10% of its original mass within six months. Biodegradation of the materials should not affect the industrial composting process or affect compost quality (see EN13432). Bioplastics that meet the requirements of EN13432 can be registered to carry the European Bioplastics Seedling Logo (see below).

The Seedling Logo and its use on food packaging

Note that products certified as compostable under the seedling logo must be registered with the Association for Organics Recycling.

Home Compostable: Currently, bioplastics can be certified as compostable at home if they meet the requirements of Vincotte, a Belgian certification programme. This programme requires that 'OK Compost Home' certified materials (see picture below) biodegrade by 90% in ambient conditions (20-30 degrees Celsius) in a maximum of twelve months.

Vincotte OK Compost Home product label

Importantly, there is a home composting certification scheme under development in the UK too. For more information please click here.

UK Home Compostable Logos

Note that products certified as home compostable or suitable for food waste collection must be registered with the Association for Organics Recycling.

Bioplastics (or bio-based plastics) offer a renewable and sustainable alternative to oil-based plastics (petroplastics). They are typically biodegradable or compostable (note that some are not biodegradable or compostable) and their production generates relatively low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. They are manufactured directly from, or through fermentation/processing of, biomass raw materials such as starch, plant oils, plant proteins, cellulose and lignin (wood). Around 80% of current bioplastics are derived from starch. The majority of starch bioplastics are made using extruded or gelatinised (destructured) starch with or without other biopolymers or petropolymers. Starch-derived sugars are currently used in fermentation processes to produce bioplastics such as polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) which have similar properties to polyethylene terephthalate (PET; a bottle plastic) and polypropylene (PP; a bottle and packaging plastic), respectively (for more information on different starches and their uses in bioplastics please click here). Bioplastics can offer novel properties over their petroplastic counterparts, for example; starch foams have good antistatic properties when compared to PE foam making them ideal for cushion packaging electronics.

So what are bioplastics currently used for?

Bioplastics can be used for a variety of applications including sculpture, horticultural pots, food serviceware and packaging, carrier bags, consumer goods packaging, minor electronics and automotive components, electronics casings, non-woven textiles, yarn/thread, clothing, automotive body panels, internal automotive upholstery, boards, horticultural mulch mats and refrigeration/heat insulation amongst many more (see below).

Click here to view the interactive bio-based plastic product display  

Examples of bioplastics, their current and potential feedstocks and uses

Currently, bioplastic production and consumption volumes are quite small in comparison to petroplastics. In fact, bioplastics hold approximately 0.1-0.2% of the global plastics market at ca. 360,000 tonnes per annum (market value 570mn euros) compared to 245 million tonnes per annum of total plastics (market value approximately 300bn euros). For a breakdown of approximate 2009 production capacities (as reported by Shen et al., 2009) please click here. However, there is renewed interest in using renewable materials partly due to government set greenhouse gas emissions savings targets. European Bioplastics predict that the market for bioplastics will expand to in the region of 3 million tonnes per annum by 2020 based on current growth trends. For information on predicted growth of the market for various different biopolymers please click here.

Improving bioplastic market penetration

Incentives and obligations: In the UK there are currently no financial incentives for companies to use bioplastics. Packaging manufacturers must pay to release packaging onto the market through a 'Producer Compliance Scheme' (amongst other measures). This levy is raised to help fund recycling of materials and evidence of compliance with the scheme is provided in the form of Packaging Recovery Notes (PRNs). This system has several categories with different prices depending on the materials released onto the market. Bioplastics do not have a specific category and are not discounted or exempted from this levy as they are in some European countries. In future it may help bioplastic market penetration if bioplastics are placed in a low cost or cost exempt category. An obligation scheme for renewable content in plastics analogous to the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO) for road transport fuel could also be a way to increase bioplastic market share. It is noteworthy that the advisory group for bio-based products (under the EC Lead Market Initiative scheme; see below) has made recommendations similar to those discussed above to improve bioplastic market development (for more information on the advisory group recommendations please click here).  

Green Public Procurement (GPP) is a policy tool in pan-European Lead Market Initiatives (LMIs) to ensure that the environmental impact of public sector purchases is taken into account. GPP covers the purchase of products, services and work tenders under two LMIs. The target set for the UK was 50% GPP by 2010 and local authorities can voluntarily contribute to this target. LMIs have been designed by the European Commission to help foster early adoption of innovation in certain markets. LMIs cover six market areas, one of which is to encourage the use of bio-based products (for information on the other five LMIs please click here). The bio-based product LMI covers bio-based plastics, bio-fibres for textiles and composite materials for construction and automotive applications. There are several other policy tools set up for each LMI. One of particular importance for the bio-based product LMI is the development of standards (by CEN, the European Committee for Standardisation) for material bio-based content, bio-based product performance and environmental impact. LMIs will help to provide a market for bioplastics and a stable environment for companies to invest in their production. It is noteworthy that there are plans to introduce the use of renewable packaging at the London 2012 Olympic Games as part of an initiative to improve the sustainability of such events. The idea will be to provide foods in packaging that will allow the waste to be disposed of through anaerobic digestion (or composting).

Cost: Currently, due to the infancy of the industry, bioplastics are relatively expensive when compared to their petroplastic counterparts. However, with economies of scale and rising crude oil prices, the price differential is likely to reduce.

Consumer awareness and labelling: Confusion exists amongst consumers over what bioplastics are, what they can be used for and how they can be disposed of. Education and clear labelling of the materials is key to surmounting this issue. There are several labels currently used to identify bioplastics and their suitability for composting (see above). These labels are useful, but they are not currently widely accepted or recognised.

End of use disposal: One advantage of bioplastics is that there are a number of different disposal options available at the end of their useful lives. These include: 1) composting; 2) recycling; 3) anaerobic digestion; 4) gasification or pyrolysis; 5) incineration. However, not all of these options are appropriate for all bioplastics, not all are developed enough to cope with the materials and not all options are available throughout the UK. In the UK, industrial composting is a well developed disposal route that could be used for bioplastics. However, anaerobic digestion is also a potential option in the near future and significant research and investment is being carried out in this area. It is noteworthy that there is currently no uniform collection protocol or processing methodology for compostable or recyclable wastes in the UK. Each different local authority collects, sorts and processes wastes in different ways. A unified national collection and waste processing scheme is required to reduce consumer confusion of what to do with recyclable and compostable wastes. In turn, this may also increase material recovery rates.  

Specifications: Plastics, particularly those in contact with food, must have very specific functional characteristics such as gas or liquid barrier properties. For bioplastics to be used in food packaging they must meet or improve upon these requirements.     

Currently, only cellulose acetate bioplastics are manufactured in the UK (from mostly foreign wood sources). However, there is potential for the use of UK wheat in the manufacture of PLA (and possibly other bioplastics). Details of a Defra funded, NNFCC managed project looking at the technical and economic feasibility of using UK wheat for PLA manufacture can be found here.

The feedstocks used for the manufacture of the majority of bioplastics are currently based on grain. In future, bioplastics could be manufactured using non-food-based lignocellulosic material (see table above) such as straw or cereal chaff. Realistically, the technology for bioplastic manufacture from cereals and oilseeds will be used, in the short to medium term, to cultivate the bioplastic market. However, alongside this there will be investment in research and development to explore use of lignocellulosic materials for bioplastic production.   

Bioplastics from novel crops     

Recently, there has been renewed interest in producing bioplastics from novel crops such as non-food energy crops including switchgrass. For example; Metabolix, in the USA, is developing genetically modified switchgrass that can produce over 3% (dry weight) polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB; a polyhydroxyalkanoate) in its leaves. The aim is to produce a variety capable of manufacturing 7.5% (dry weight) PHB in its leaves so that harvesting the plastic becomes economically viable. This means a PHB-producing switchgrass crop could potentially be used to manufacture both bioethanol and PHB plastic.  

Bioplastics from bloodmeal

Bioplastics produced from animal waste products such as bloodmeal are under investigation. Research at the University of Waikato (New Zealand) has found that it is possible to generate a bioplastic from animal bloodmeal proteins with strength greater than Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE; a packaging plastic). The bloodmeal-based bioplastic could be used for tree guards, plant trays and extruded netting.

Bioplastics from algae

Recently, interest in the use of algae for bioplastics has increased. This is because algae provide a unique opportunity to clean up flue gases from industry smoke stacks to produce useful products such as oil (and starch). Algae can utilise flue carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide gases as nutrients to grow. However, there are a few issues with growing algae such as the requirement for tanks, growth media, constant temperature (year-round), a means to extract and dry algae cells, a means to extract the oil (and starch). Cereplast, a US bioplastics company specialising in starch-based plastics, has announced that it is researching the use of algae for bioplastic manufacture.

Mineral carbon bioplastics        

Both carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide can be sequestered into plastics by chemically-catalysed reactions with propylene and ethylene oxides (epoxides). Novomer has developed polyethylene carbonate (PEC; a packaging plastic) produced by reacting carbon dioxide with ethylene oxide. The company also produces PHAs using carbon monoxide and epoxides. Novomer (USA) plans to build a pilot plant close to a sugar-based epoxide plant to manufacture sustainable resins. Other developers of similar technology include  Japan’s National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST).

BASF (A German chemical manufacturer) and CSM (Netherlands; a manufacturer of lactic acid and bio-based chemicals for polymer manufacture) have teamed up to produce succinic acid from carbon dioxide. Succinic acid is a building block for the manufacture of plastics such as biodegradable polybutylene succinate (PBS) used in packaging and tableware amongst other applications.  

Other research has shown that solar energy can be used to convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds such as methane, ethane and propane that can be used as fuels. This technology could also be used to provide feedstock for plastic manufacture, but it is currently in the early stages of development and large scale manufacture is unlikely in the near future. 

Waste-derived bioplastics        

Bioplastics such as PHAs can be made by fermentation of organic carbon wastes. For example, Scion (New Zealand) have developed a fermentation method to produce PHAs from forestry and paper pulping industry waste water. Other wastes that could be used include fruit (kiwi) and vegetable scraps, cow excrement and garden ‘green’ waste. Other researchers in the field at the Technical University of Delft (Netherlands) are developing similar mixed culture fermentation processes for the production of PHAs from wastes containing volatile fatty-acids.

Bioplastics from petroplastics        

Researchers at the University of Dublin have developed a process to convert conventional plastics such as polystyrene (PS) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) into PHAs. The first step involves pyrolysis of the petroplastic (thermal breakdown to carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas or ‘syngas’ in the absence of air) resulting in the production of oils. These oils are then used as a carbon source in fermentation processes to produce PHAs.

For more detailed information on bioplastics please refer to HGCA project report PR450 Industrial Uses for Crops: Markets for Bioplastics and its accompanying summary leaflet.

For the report please click here

For the leaflet please click here